Panthera tigris

Taxonomy (Name)

Class		MAMMALIAIUCN
Order		CARNIVORAIUCN
Family		FELIDAEIUCN
Scientific Name		Panthera tigrisIUCN
Author		(Linnaeus, 1758)IUCN
Synonyms
Common Name		TigerIUCN
Local name	Brunei Darussalam
	Cambodia
	China
	Indonesia	Harimau Jawa /Harimau Sumatera
	Japan
	Lao PDR
	Malaysia	Harimau Belang
	Myanmar
	Mongolia
	Philippines
	Singapore
	Republic of Korea
	Thailand	?????????
	Vietnam

Picture

 

Distribution, Range

The Tiger once ranged widely across Asia, from Turkey in the west to the eastern coast of Russia (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Over the past 100 years Tigers have disappeared from southwest and central Asia, from two Indonesian islands (Java and Bali) and from large areas of Southeast and Eastern Asia. Tigers have lost 93% of their historic range (Sanderson et al. 2006).

Tigers are currently found in thirteen Asian range states: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Viet Nam. They may still persist in North Korea, although there has been no recent confirmed evidence.

Sanderson et al. (2006) undertook an extensive collaborative exercise to map current tiger range. Priority areas for tigers were delineated and are called Tiger Conservation Landscapes, or TCLs. TCLs are defined as areas where there is sufficient habitat to conserve at least five tigers, and tigers have been confirmed to occur in the past decade. The range map shows the TCLs, and maps can be viewed in detail at the Save the Tiger Fund website: http://www.savethetigerfund.org/am/customsource/tiger/mapping/index.cfm

A total of 76 TCLs were delineated, with a total area of 1,184,911 km2. TCLS vary in size, with the largest 269,983 km2 in the Russian Far East and the smallest 278 km2 in India. Most TCLs are small: 61 (80%) are less than 10,000 km2 in area, and the median area for the entire set is just 2,904 km2. Rabinowitz (1999) and Karanth and Nichols (2002) emphasize the importance of large core zones (>3,000 km2) with a healthy prey base for conservation of viable tiger populations.

However, tiger range is actually smaller than the total area of TCLS, because most TCLS contain area of non-tiger habitat where tigers cannot live (average 55% non-habitat, ranging from 20?70% of a TCL). The average amount of legally protected area within a TCL is shown below.

However, tigers do occur outside the TCLs. The exercise also identified 543 Fragments with Tigers - areas of habitat with confirmed tiger presence, but considered too small to support a long-term population. Also, 491 Tiger Survey Landscapes were highlighted - areas where tiger status is unknown, but where there is some reason to believe tigers might still be present, and which are large enough to support at least five tigers.

The Indian sub-continent (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Bhutan, western Myanmar) is the bioregion with the most TCLS (40) and the highest number of TCLs assessed as being of global importance and of top priority for conservation (11). Total TCL area 227,569 km2. Median TCL size 2,154 km2. Average percent of TCL protected: 15.8%.

The Indochina bioregion (Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam) has a smaller number of TCLs (20, with six of top priority) but the largest TCL total area of the four bioregions. Total TCL area 540,758 km2. Median TCL size 5,288 km2. Average percent of TCL protected: 29.2%.

The Southeast Asia bioregion supports 15 TCLs, with three of global priority. Total TCL area 145,285 km2. Median TCL size 3,884 km2. Average percent of TCL protected: 36.5%.

The Russian Far East bioregion (which includes small areas of northeastern China and North Korea) has just two TCLs, but includes the world's largest (269,983 km2). Total TCL area 271,297 km2. Median TCL size 135,649 km2. Average percent of TCL protected: 9.9%.

Tiger range has been shrinking not only historically, but also more recently. Comparison of current TCL area with a previous estimate a decade ago (Dinerstein et al. 1997) finds that Tiger range has shrunk by 41% in the past ten years. This discrepancy is due in part to technical reasons including a better state of knowledge and improved tiger detection methodologies (Karanth et al. 2003, Sanderson et al. 2006). However, Dinerstein et al. (2007) consider Tiger poaching and habitat loss to be important causes of this recent decline.

Although tiger range loss has been serious and steep, Sanderson et al. (2006) still consider 77% of current range to consist of "known and secured breeding populations of Tigers in areas large enough for a substantive population." Roughly half of all TCLs are big enough to support an estimated 100 tigers or more, with the largest seven TCLs offering the potential to support 500 or more Tigers. Even if tiger populations in these landscapes are below carrying capacity, these areas provide opportunities to increase tiger populations with appropriate conservation measures (Dinerstein et al. 2006).

IUCN

Map

Country

Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia	IUCN
China	IUCN
Indonesia	IUCN
Japan
Lao PDR	IUCN
Malaysia	IUCN
Myanmar	IUCN
Mongolia
Philippines
Singapore
Republic of Korea
Thailand	IUCN
Vietnam	IUCN

Status

International Status

IUCN Red List Category

ENIUCN

Justification

Listed as Endangered under A2bcd+4bcd. Sanderson et al. (2006) built upon previous work by Dinerstein et al. (1997) to map priority landscapes for Tigers (Tiger Conservation Landscapes). The Tiger's extent of occupied area is estimated at less than 1,184,911 km2 (Sanderson et al. 2006), a 41% decline from the area estimated by Dinerstein et al. (1997). India suffered the most range contraction. While part of the difference is due to improved data after a decade of intensive Tiger conservation efforts, and improved datasets and techniques, biologists consider the primary cause to be declines due to poaching and habitat loss (Dinerstein et al. 2007). Range decline is considered a strong indicator of population decline (Dinerstein et al. 2007). Because an average of 55% of Tiger Conservation Landscapes consists of non-tiger habitat (Sanderson et al., 2006), the declines in population and area of occupancy are greater than the 41% estimated, and thus likely indicate a 50% or greater reduction, especially when measured over three Tiger generations (21?27 years). The declining trend is likely to persist in the near future. The causes of population reduction may not be reversible in some areas.

Also listed under C1+2a(i). Few tiger populations have been estimated with confidence, but compiling national population estimates results in a global population of 3,000?5,000 adults (see section Population for details). IUCN Guidelines (IUCN 2006) define population as the number of mature individuals, defined as "individuals known, estimated or inferred to be capable of reproduction." While in general this refers to all reproductive-age adults in the population, the Guidelines also "stress that the intention of the definition of mature individuals is to allow the estimate of the number of mature individuals to take account of all the factors that may make a taxon more vulnerable than otherwise might be expected." Two factors which increase the Tiger's vulnerability to extinction are their low densities (relative to other mammals, including their prey species) and relatively low recruitment rates (where few animals raise offspring which survive to join the breeding population) (Smith and McDougal 1991, Kerley et al. 2003). Low densities means that relatively large areas are required for conservation of viable populations; it has long been recognized that many protected areas are too small to conserve viable Tiger populations (Nowell and Jackson 1996, Dinerstein et al. 1997, Sanderson et al. 2006). Low recruitment rates also require larger populations and larger areas to conserve viable populations, as well as mortality reduction in non-protected areas to maintain population size through connectivity (Carroll and Miquelle 2006). High mortality rates can be offset by an abundant prey base (Karanth et al. 2006), but prey base depletion was considered a leading threat to Tigers across much of their range (Sanderson et al. 2006). The IUCN Guidelines advise that "mature individuals that will never produce new recruits should not be counted." Low recruitment rates indicate that fewer adults than would be expected produce new recruits. Defining population size as the total estimated number of reproductive age adults in the taxon would also not take into account that many occur in subpopulations which are too small or too threatened for long-term viability. Instead, the number of mature individuals is defined as equivalent to the estimated effective population size.

Effective population size (Ne) is an estimator of the genetic size of the population, and is generally considered representative of the proportion of the total adult population (N) which reproduces itself through offspring which themselves survive and reproduce. Thus, the Tiger's population size as the number of reproductive age adults would not take into account that many occur in populations which are too small for long-term viability. Instead, the number of mature individuals is defined as equivalent to the estimated effective population size. Effective population size (Ne) is an estimator of the genetic size of the population, and is generally considered representative of the proportion of the total adult population (N) which reproduces itself through offspring which themselves survive and reproduce. Ne is usually smaller than N, as has been documented for the tiger. The effective population size of Tigers in Nepal's Chitwan National Park was equivalent to just 40% of the actual adult population (Smith and McDougal 1991). Therefore, the number of viable mature Tiger individuals is projected to be 40% of the total estimated population, in the range 1,225?2,026, with no subpopulation having an effective population size larger than 250.

The number of locations is the 76 Tiger Conservation Landscapes (major tiger subpopulations). There are an additional 543 Fragments with Tigers - areas of habitat with confirmed tiger presence, but considered too small to support a long-term population. Potential tiger occurrence is captured in the 491 Tiger Survey Landscapes - areas where Tiger status is unknown, but where there is some reason to believe tigers might still be present, and which are large enough to support at least five Tigers (Sanderson et al. 2006).

IUCN

CITES

Appendix IIUCN

CMS

 

National Status

Country	Category	Reference
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia	EN	Endangered Spacies in Cambodia(WWF) http://cambodia.panda.org/wwf_in_cambodia/endangered_species
China	E	China Red Data book of Endangered Animals(1998) （Extinct, Extirpated, Endangered, Vulnerable, Rare, Interninate）
Indonesia
Japan
Korea	RE	Korean Red List of Threatened Species(NIBR, 2012)
Lao PDR	ARL	Wildlife in Lao PDR, 1999 Status Report(IUCN, 1999) (At Risk in Lao, Conditionally At Risk, Little Known, not applicable, Potentially At Risk)
Malaysia	EN	Red List of Mammals for Peninsular Malaysia(DWNP, 2010)
Mongolia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand	EN	Thailand Red Data: Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians(Nabhitabhata and Chan-ard, 2005)
Vietnam	E	Red Data Book of Vietnam(2000) （Endangered, Vulnerable, Rare, Threatened）

Ecology Discription

Appearance

 

Habitat

Tigers are found only in the tropics of Asia. According to a recent comprehensive range mapping exercise (Sanderson et al. 2006), most Tiger range is found in tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (700,991 km2, or 60% of Tiger range). The second most common habitat type is temperate and broadleaf mixed forest (251,516 km2, or 21% of Tiger range), and the third is tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (122,599 km2, or 10% of tiger range). Other habitat types in which Tigers are found include coniferous forest, mangrove forest, and tropical grass and shrubland. Photos of Tigers up to 4,500 m have been obtained in Bhutan (Wang 2008).

IUCN

Population size

Scientific efforts to monitor Tiger populations and estimate their size have increased in recent years (Gratwicke et al. 2006). A collation of national tiger estimates is given below. While some national populations can be estimated with confidence (notably Russia, India and Nepal), most are admittedly more speculative, ranging from application of site-specific density estimates over large areas to outright guesstimates. Putting all these national estimates together, the global Tiger population is estimated to range from 3,000?5,000 (3,062?5,066).

A previous compilation of national estimates to determine the global population estimated 5,000?7,000 Tigers (Seidensticker et al. 1999). While most of these previous estimates were rough and lacked the scientific rigour that has gone into some recent estimates, so that a direct comparison is unreliable, a global population decline is suggested, as would be expected given the documented range reduction of 41% over the last decade (Sanderson et al. 2006).

In terms of conserving the wild tiger's genetic biodiversity, population biologists prefer to work with a number that approximates the actual breeding population, the number of animals which raise offspring to reproductive adulthood, or effective population size (Ne). The number of breeding tigers in one population was equivalent to just 40% of the actual adult population, based on long-term demographic studies in Nepal's Chitwan National Park (Smith and McDougal 1991). Therefore, the Tiger's effective population size could be in the range of 1,225?2,026 reproductively successful adults.

Bangladesh: Tigers are now largely restricted to the Sundarbans mangrove forest. Estimating tiger density based on prey density, Khan (2004) estimated the population at 200. A higher estimate of 419 was obtained by the Bangladesh Ministry of Environment and Forests, which carried out a joint census with their Indian counterparts (MoEF 2004), using a methodology of identifying individual tigers from their tracks which has been criticized as yielding inaccurate results (Karanth et al. 2003). Based on the first data on home range collected from two radio-collared female tigers (11.5 and 13.9 km2), Barlow et al. (2007) roughly estimated there could be 95?286 female tigers in the Sundarbans. Estimate used for global population: 200?419.

Bhutan: Dorji and Santiapillaai (1989) estimated Bhutan's tiger population at 151 (based on track counts) to 250 (extrapolating to unsurveyed areas). However, the density they used for their extrapolation (one adult per 40 km2) was high for the more high-altitude parts of their range. In Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park (where tigers have been recorded up to 4,500 m), Wang (2008) estimates, from camera trapping, a density of one tiger per 200 km2. A similar density for the central Himalayan region was obtained from track surveys by McDougal and Tsering in the late 1990s, one Tiger/185 km2. Overall, their surveys estimated 67?81 adult tigers in Bhutan; this figure is used in the Government of Bhutan's 2005 National Tiger Action Plan (Sangay and Wangchuk 2005), although further research is necessary to clarify tiger abundance and distribution in the country (S. Wang pers. comm. 2008). Estimate used for global population: 67?81.

Cambodia: Several NGOs working on tiger conservation held a meeting in 2004 to review data for the Tiger Conservation Landscape delineation exercise (Sanderson et al. 2006). Based on their work, using a range of methodologies including camera traps and field surveys by biologists and community wildlife rangers, Cambodia's Tiger population was estimated at 11?50 Tigers (Chheang et al. 2006). WWF (2010) estimates "probably no more than 30."

China: The Government of China, State Forest Administration, distributed a presentation at the 2007 International Tiger Symposium held April 2007 in Kathmandu, Nepal. The total Tiger population in China was estimated at 37?50, broken down as follows. Amur Tiger P.t. altaica (northeastern China) 18?22; Bengal Tiger P. t. tigris (Motuo county, Tibet) 8?12; Indochinese Tiger P. t. corbetti (southern Yunnan province) 11?16; South China Tiger P. t. amoyensis (southern China) no definite evidence of continued persistence (Government of China 2007, GTF 2007).

India: India's previous national Tiger censuses were based on recognition of individual Tiger tracks, and in 2001?2002 estimated the population at 3,642 Tigers. This methodology was criticized by leading tiger scientists for being inaccurate and inefficient (Karanth et al. 2003). A new methodology has been developed as recommended by the 2005 Tiger action plan (Government of India 2005), using GIS mapping systems to extrapolate tiger densities derived from camera trap and sign-based indices of abundance. The Indian tiger population is now estimated at 1,411 (range 1,165?1,657 (Jhala et al. 2008). The Indian Sundarbans Tiger population was not estimated. Because of the difference in methodology, it is not clear how much of the reduction from the 2001 estimate is due to actual loss of Tigers as opposed to a more accurate census result.

Indonesia: The Sumatran Tiger occurs in about 58,321 km2 of forested habitat in 12 potentially isolated Tiger Conservation Landscapes totalling 88,351 km2 (Sanderson et al. 2006), with about 37,000 km2 protected in ten national parks (Government of Indonesia 2007b). The Tiger population was estimated at 400?500 in the first and second national Tiger action plans (Government of Indonesia 1994, 2007a), and at 342?509 in six major protected areas (estimates from Shepherd and Magnus 2004). However, incorporating more recent research (Linkie et al. 2006, Government of Indonesia 2007b), covering most of tiger estimated habitat (Sanderson et al. 2006), suggests the population could be 441?679 (see Red List assessment of Panthera tigris sumatrae for details). Understanding of Sumatran Tiger status will improve when research in the three Tiger Conservation Landscapes in Riau province by Sunarto et al. (2007) is complete. Estimate used for global population: 441?679.

Lao PDR: Tigers are known to occur in five (Duckworth et al. 1999) to seven areas (GTF 2007). One of the largest is the 3,446 km2 (+ 854 km2 proposed extension) Nam Et - Phou Louey National Protected Area. Based on camera trapping, Tiger density there was estimated at 0.2?0.7 per 100 km2, a relatively low density suggesting a population of only 7?23 Tigers in the reserve (Johnson et al. 2006). Tigers and their large ungulate prey have have been depleted by hunting pressure across the country, and tiger numbers are likely to be low (Duckworth et al. 1999). Estimate used for global population: 30 (WWF 2010).

Malaysia: Based on typical prey biomass in tropical rainforests, energetic needs of Tigers, estimated Tiger densities from studies carried out in Taman Negara National Park, Malaysia, and others in tropical Asia, and available tiger habitats in Peninsular Malaysia, Kawanishi et al. (2003) estimated the national tiger population at 493?1,480 adult tigers. The lower bound coincides with the previous population estimate for the country (Topani 1990) and is the number selected as feasible by the country's national Tiger action plan (DWNP 2008). However, based on density estimates derived from camera trapping in six sites in Malaysia during the late 1990s, Lynam et al. (2007) suggest a lower population, "up to several hundred." Estimate range used for global population: 300?493.

Myanmar: Tigers have disappeared or occur at very low density across much of Myanmar, home to thousands of tigers a few decades ago (Lynam 2003, Government of Myanmar 2009). Most Tigers are now found in the large Hukaung Tiger reserve in the north of the country (fewer than 100, with up to 70 adults and sub-adults estimated in the corea area where management efforts are focused: Lynam et al. 2008, Anonymous 2009a). The other important area for Tigers is the forest complex found in northern and southern Taninthayi Division (approx. 50) (Lynam 2003). Range used for global estimate: 100?150.

Nepal: A census, using camera traps and habitat occupancy surveys, of four protected areas in the Terai region of Nepal estimated 121 (100?194) breeding adult Tigers, with most (91) found in Chitwan National Park, an increase from a 2006 estimate of 50?60. However, numbers have declined in western Nepal, with estimates of four in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, eight in Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, and 18 in Bardia National Park, according to Nepal's Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (Anonymous 2009b, WWF 2009). Overall, estimates of the population of breeding adult Tigers have remained generally stable since 2000 (Government of Nepal 2007, WWF 2009).

North Korea: There have been no surveys since 1998, when tiger tracks were reported along the border with China (Miquelle 1998).

Russia: In 2005 a comprehensive winter snow tracking census estimated 331?393 adult/sub-adult Tigers; 977 fieldworkers covered 1,537 transect routes totalling 26,031 km. Using a similar methodology, 330?371 adult tigers were estimated in 1996. The more recent number probably reflects more intensive survey effort (Miquelle et al. 2007). However, after having been stable for over a decade, recent surveys which covered about 15?20% of Tiger habitat in Russia may indicate a significant declining trend (D. Miquelle pers. comm.). Moreover, the population has very low genetic diversity, behaving as if it were just 27?35 individuals (effective population size: Henry et al. 2009).

Thailand: Tigers occur in 15 spatially disjunct forest complexes in Thailand (Smith et al. 1999), and were recorded in six out of seven forest complexes where camera trap surveys were carried out (Lynam et al. 2006). The best area for Tigers is Huai Kha Khaeng National Park, with an estimated 113 Tigers (Simcharoen et al. 2007). Extrapolating the density obtained from Huai Kha Khaeng (3.98 tigers per 100 km2) to the large 18,000 km2 Western Forest complex, the largest habitat block for Tigers in Thailand, Simcharoen et al. (2007) estimated it could hold 720 Tigers, with the potential to harbour 2,000 if prey densities were to increase. However, this estimate should be treated as speculative pending further data from other parts of the Western Forest complex, where conditions are unlikely to be as good as in Huai Kha Khaeng. For example, the distribution map in Thailand's national Tiger action plan portrays approximately half of the Western Forest complex population as low density in comparison to the Huai Kha Khaeng population (Tunhikorn et al. 2004). In other Thai forest complexes, including Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Lynam et al. 2001) and the Dong Phayayen-Khai Yai complex (Lynam et al. 2006), Tigers were few, occurring at much lower densities than would have been predicted on the basis of habitat quality. Rabinowitz (1993), using presence/absence surveys and a modified arbitrary density estimate of one Tiger per 100 km2, estimated the Thai Tiger population at no more than 250. Estimate range used for global population: 250?720.

Viet Nam: The population was estimated at fewer than 50 Tigers by Nguyen Manh Ha from Vietnam National University, a delegate to the 2009 Global Tiger Workshop International Tiger Symposium (Anonymous 2009c). WWF (2010) estimates "probably no more than 30." According to government representatives attending the 2007 International Tiger Symposium of the Global Tiger Forum, a 2004?2005 exercise estimated not more than 100 Tigers in areas along the borders with Lao and Cambodia (GTF 2007). In 2007, the Vietnamese Red Data Book estimated 150 Tigers (Government of Viet Nam 2009). All of these estimates (30?150) are based on a poor information base and more study is needed.

Follow the link below for further information about national Tiger population estimates.

IUCN

Behavior

Tigers are generally solitary, with adults maintaining exclusive territories, or home ranges. Adult female home ranges seldom overlap, whereas male ranges typically overlap from 1?3 females, a typical felid pattern of social organization. Tiger home ranges are small where prey is abundant - e.g., female home ranges in Chitwan averaged 20 km2, while in the Russian Far East they are much larger at 450 km2 (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Similarly, reported tiger densities range from 11.65 adult tigers per 100 km2 where prey is abundant (India's Nagarhole National Park) to as low as 0.13?0.45 per 100 km2 where prey is more thinly distributed, as in Russia's Sikhote Alin Mountains (Nowell and Jackson 1996).

IUCN

Diet

Availability of a sufficient prey base of large ungulates is the tiger's major habitat requirement: "wild pigs and deer of various species are the two prey types that make up the bulk of the Tiger's diet, and in general tigers require a good population of these species in order to survive and reproduce" (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Based on studies, Karanth et al. (2004) estimate that Tigers need to kill 50 large prey animals per year. Tigers are opportunistic predators, however, and their diet includes birds, fish, rodents, insects, amphibians, reptiles in addition to other mammals such as primates and porcupines. Tigers can also take ungulate prey much larger than themselves, including large bovids (water buffalo, gaur, banteng), elephants and rhinos (Nowell and Jackson 1996).

IUCN

Reproduction

 

Threat

Major Threat(s)

 

Conservation and Measurement

International

Tigers have been the focus of substantial conservation effort and investment. Most range countries have developed or are developing national Tiger conservation action plans. A unique international conservation body, the Global Tiger Forum, brings together tiger range state governments with other governments and NGO members (GTF 2007). The World Bank has launched the Global Tiger Initiative www.globaltigerinitiative.org, bringing conservationists together with the top tiers of government and international finance. The GTI sponsored a Global Tiger Workshop in Kathmandu in October 2009, and in January 2010 the First Asian Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation pledged to protect critical tiger habitats.

Tigers are included on CITES Appendix I, banning international trade, and all Tiger range states as well as countries with consumer markets have banned domestic trade as well (although implementation has been uneven, and some legal loopholes remain (Nowell 2007). At the 14th Conference of the Parties to CITES, stronger enforcement measures were called for, as well as an end to Tiger farming (the production of tiger products from captive Tigers) (Nowell et al. 2007).

IUCN

National

National governments have invested huge resources in Tiger conservation, including India, which has had a special Project Tiger program since the early 1970s. Non-governmental organizations have been very active. S. Christie (in Sanderson et al. 2006) analysed Tiger conservation funding by non-governmental organizations in the years 1998?2002. Over $23 million USD was invested, primarily in India, Russia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Nepal. The Save the Tiger Fund, funded in part by ExxonMobil, has invested 12.6 million USD in Tiger conservation from 1995-2004 (Gratwicke et al. 2006).

IUCN

Conservation law

Country	Status	Reference
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Indonesia	Protected Animals	Goverment Regulation no. 7 / 1999, about Preservation of Plants and Animals
Japan
Korea	Endengered Species Category Ⅰ	Wildlife Protection Act
Lao PDR
Malaysia	Totally Protected Wild Animals	Law of Malaysia Act 76, Protection of Wild Life Act 1972 (Amend. 2006)
Mongolia
Myanmar	Completely Protected Animals(as Panthera tigris tigris & Panthera tigris corbetii)	Protection of Wildlife, Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Act 15(A), Forest Department Notification No. 583/94
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Vietnam	Group I: Prohibiting Exploitation and Use for Commercial Purposes	The Government Decree 32/2006/ND-CP, Dated 30th March 2006 on Management of Endangered, Precious and Rare Species of Wild Plants and Animals

Protected Area

 

Other Coservation Projects

To address the threat posed by habitat loss and fragmentation of the Tiger population, the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Panthera Foundation announced plans on 30th January 2008 to establish a 5,000 mile-long "genetic corridor" from Bhutan to Myanmar that would conserve a large contiguous Tiger population. It would span eight countries and represent the largest block of Tiger habitat left on earth. The World Wide Fund for Nature has launched a major tiger initiative with the goal of doubling the wild tiger population by 2020. More than 35 non-governmental organizations have joined forces in the International Tiger Coalition, which advocates for Tiger conservation.

Sanderson et al. (2006) surveyed 77 biologists about the effectiveness of conservation measures for Tigers in the areas they work in (Tiger Conservation Landscapes), and compiled the results to indicate conservation effectiveness across Tiger range. Scores for 22 conservation measures are given below; high scores indicate high effectiveness and widespread implementation. Measures at the top of the list are widely implemented and considered effective. Measures in the middle require more effort, and measures at the bottom are perceived to be ineffective. Individual Tiger Conservation Landscapes which received the highest conservation effectivenss scores were in India, Bhutan, Nepal and Malaysia. Malaysia also had a number of Tiger Conservation Landscapes with the lowest scores, indicating lack of effective implementation.

Conservation Measure Effectiveness score.

Education of local people 170
Education of school children 164
Training of protected area staff 159
Anti-poaching patrols 153
Monitoring of tigers in the field 152
Enforcement of protected area policies 149
Provisioning or monetary support to protected area staff 141
Enforcement of existing laws regarding tigers 135
Local publicity about Tigers 133
Monitoring of prey populations 129
Anti-trafficking enforcement 104
Ecotourism ventures 104
Compensation programs 99
New laws/policies for Tigers 93
Conflict management/mitigation 90
Monitoring of trade in Tiger parts 80
New/upgraded protected area 78
Translocation of local people out of protected area 76
Habitat restoration 68
Habitat enhancement 58
Captive breeding facility 24
Reintroduction of Tigers 8

IUCN

Citation

Anonymous. 2009a. Myanmar's Hukuange reserve has less than 100 tigers. Cat News 51: 54.

Anonymous. 2009b. Estimate of 121 breeding tigers in Nepal. Cat News 51: 49-50.

Anonymous. 2009c. Vietnam must focus on protecting its 50 wild tigers. Cat News 51: 50.

Barlow, A. C. D., Ishtiaq, I. U., Smith, J. L. D. and Hossain, A. N. M. 2007. Small sample size and wild extrapolation: preliminary results from a telemetry study of tigers in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh. In: J. Hughes and R. Mercer (eds), Felid Biology and Conservation Conference 17-20 Sept: Abstracts, pp. 121. WildCRU, Oxford, UK.

Carroll, C. and Miquelle, D. G. 2006. Spatial viability analysis of Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica in the Russian Far East: The role of protected areas and landscape matrix in population persistence. Journal of Applied Ecology 43: 1056-1068.

Chheang, D., Nong, P., Grey, J. C., Nowell, K., Prum, S. and Weiler, H. 2006. Final report of the Cambodia Community Wildlife Range Program. Cat Action Treasury.

CITES. 2008. Asian Big Cats. Decision 14.69. http://www.cites.org/eng/dec/valid14/14_65-72.shtml.

Cracraft, J., Feinstein, J., Vaughn, J. and Helm-Bychowski, K. 1998. Sorting out tigers (Panthera tigris): mitochondrial sequences, nuclear inserts, systematics, and conservation genetics. Animal Conservation 1: 139.

Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia. In prep.. National Tiger Action Plan for Malaysia. In: Department of National Parks and Wildlife (eds). Government of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.

Dinerstein, E., Loucks, C., Heydlauff, A., Wikramanayake, E., Bryja, G., Forrest, J., Ginsberg, J., Klenzendorf, S., Leimgruber, P., O'Brien, T., Sanderson, E., Seidensticker, J. and Songer, M. 2006. Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers: 2005-2015. A User's Guide. World Wildlife Fund, WCS, Smithsonian, and NFWF-STF, Washington, DC, USA and New York, USA.

Dinerstein, E., Loucks, C., Wikramanayake, E., Ginsburg, J., Sanderson, E., Seidensticker, J., Forrest, J., Bryja, G., Heydlauff, A., Klenzendorf, S., Leimgruber, P., Mills, J., O'Brien, T. G., Shrestha, M., Simons, R. and Songer, M. 2007. The fate of wild tigers. Bioscience 57(6): 508-514.

Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Robinson, J., Karanth, U., Rabinowitz, A., Olson, D., Mathew, T., Hedao, P., Connor, P., Hemley, G. and Bolze, D. 1997. A Framework for Identifying High Priority Areas and Actions for the Conservation of Tigers in the Wild. A Framework for Identifying High Priority Areas and Actions for the Conservation of Tigers in the Wild.

Dorji, D. P. and Santiapillai, C. 1989. The status, distribution and conservation of the tiger Panthera tigris in Bhutan. Biological Conservation 48: 311-319.

Duckworth, J. W., Salter, R. E. and Khounbline, K. 1999. Wildlife in Lao PDR: 1999 Status Report. IUCN, Vientiane, Laos.

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