Bubalus arnee

Taxonomy (Name)

Class		MAMMALIAIUCN
Order		CETARTIODACTYLAIUCN
Family		BOVIDAEIUCN
Scientific Name		Bubalus arneeIUCN
Author		(Kerr, 1792)IUCN
Synonyms		Bos arni Hamilton Smith, 1827 Bos bubalus Blanford, 1891 var. fulvus Bubalis bubalis Deraniyagala, 1953 ssp. migona Bubalus arna Hodgson, 1841 Bubalus arna Hodgson, 1842 var. macrocerus Bubalus bubalus Matschie, 1912 ssp. SeptentrionalisIUCN
Common Name		Asian Buffalo, Asiatic Buffalo, Indian Buffalo, Indian Water Buffalo, Water Buffalo, Wild Asian Buffalo, Wild Water BuffaloIUCN
Local name	Brunei Darussalam
	Cambodia
	China
	Indonesia
	Japan
	Lao PDR
	Malaysia
	Myanmar
	Mongolia
	Philippines
	Singapore
	Republic of Korea
	Thailand	???????, ??????
	Vietnam

Picture

 

Distribution, Range

During the Pleistocene epoch the genus Bubalus was widely distributed throughout Europe and southern Asia and contained forms conspecific with B. arnee. When the climate became drier the genus was restricted to the Indian subcontinent, mainland South-East Asia, and some of the South-East Asian islands. In historical times B. arnee ranged across South and South-East Asia, occurring from Mesopotamia to Indochina (Epstein 1971; Mason 1974; Cockrill 1984).

Remnant populations of Wild Water Buffalo are thought to occur at single sites in each of southern Nepal, southern Bhutan, western Thailand, eastern Cambodia, and northern Myanmar, and at several sites in India: in the Bastar region of Madhya Pradesh, in Assam, in Arunachal Pradesh, and possibly in Meghalaya, Orissa and Maharashtra.

Wild Water Buffalo is believed to be extinct in Bangladesh, Peninsular Malaysia, and on the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. The domestic form (considered by IUCN as B. bubalis) occurs as feral and domesticated populations worldwide (Grubb 2005).

The situation in Indochina is less certain. Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam were not included within the range of Wild Water Buffalo given in Corbet and Hill (1992). Free-living buffalo of unknown pedigree occur throughout the region (e.g. Sayer 1983; Laurie et al. 1989; Salter et al. 1990; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008) but Wild Water Buffalo is probably extinct in Viet Nam and almost certainly in Lao PDR (Groves 1996; Grubb 2005; Duckworth et al. 1999; Tordoff et al. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).

The origin and current genetic status of the herds of apparently wild buffaloes in Sri Lanka is uncertain but it is thought unlikely that any true wild buffaloes remain there today. Corbet and Hill (1992) included Sri Lanka within the historical range of wild buffalo, although Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951), Gee (1964), and Maia (1970) thought that the Sri Lankan buffaloes were descended from introduced domestic stock. Certain ancient texts seem to support this view (Ashby and Santiapillai 1983). The fact that no buffaloes occur south of the Godavari river in India has also been taken to suggest that Sri Lanka possesses only feral buffaloes descended from introduced animals. However, Deraniyagala (1953), considered that the occurrence of fossil buffalo teeth in the gem sands of the Ratnapura area disproved this view, although it is not clear how old these buffalo teeth are (and Gaur remains found at similar depths in the same area were less than 1,000 years old). Moreover, morphometrics suggest that there was an ancestral population of animals on that island closer to Wild Water Buffalo than to Domestic Water Buffalo (Groves and Jayantha Jayawardene unpublished). Nevertheless, even if the Water Buffalo is indigenous to Sri Lanka the question of whether the free-living herds found there today should be treated as wild B. arnee still arises. In the nineteenth-century, free-ranging herds were common over much of the island's dry low country but they were nearly eliminated by an outbreak of rinderpest at the end of the century, and for a time their survival was in doubt (Phillips 1935). Phillips reported that small populations might have survived in the hill country but the subsequent intensification of agriculture probably led to their demise (Ashby and Santiapillai 1983). After the rinderpest outbreak buffalo recolonized much of the dry zone but most of them had apparently interbred with domestic stock and in 1953 Deraniyagala wrote '[the] relatively purest herds are restricted to Yala Game Sanctuary, but much vigilance will be necessary if this remnant is to be kept free from domestic animals which are now encroaching upon this once inaccessible area'. Woodford (1979) also suggested that the genetic integrity of the wild form has already been lost in Ruhuna. To conclude, even if it is assumed that Wild Water Buffalo once occurred on Sri Lanka it seems unlikely that they survived the rinderpest outbreak and the subsequent genetic swamping by feral and domestic buffalo: consequently all free-living buffalo populations on Sri Lanka almost certainly contain genetic input from domestic or feral stock.

Neither Java nor Sumatra are included within the original range of wild Bubalus arnee as presented in many accounts. Nevertheless Stremme (1911) thought that the occurrence of the fossil B. palaeokerabau in Java made it probable that the buffaloes there belonged to the original fauna of the island (as Cuvier believed). Merkens (1927) also doubted, on historical grounds, the domestic origin of all free-living buffaloes on the island as did Mason (1974) who stated that domestic buffalo were present on Sumatra and Java long before the Hindus arrived almost 2,000 years ago. Moreover Van der Maarel (1932) provisionally regarded the fossil specimens which he obtained from Java (and indeed B. palaeokerabau) as specifically indistinct from modern buffaloes, pointing to a Pleistocene presence of the species on the island (cf. Medway 1972). Corbet and Hill (1992) also thought it probable that wild buffaloes occur on Java and Sumatra. Despite the doubts raised by Van der Maarel and Dammerman there is in fact little doubt that all the apparently wild buffaloes now living on Java and Sumatra are descended from domestic animals, or from Wild Water Buffaloes that have interbred with domestic and/or feral buffaloes (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).

Opinion is divided over whether to include Borneo within the historic range of the species. Corbet and Hill (1992) did not list it, and neither Mason (1974) nor Payne et al. (1985) considered it likely that Water Buffalo was part of the indigenous fauna. Lydekker (1898), by contrast, described the small buffalo of Sarawak as a separate subspecies (B. b. hosei), although Mason (1974) thought that Lydekker was probably describing the feral animals which were common there. Cockrill (1968) suggested that traders from the Hindu empire in Sumatra may have introduced the buffalo in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and he did not think that there was any convincing evidence that would suggest that it was an indigenous species. Nevertheless, animal remains from the Niah caves indicate a Stone Age presence of buffalo in Sarawak (Harrisson 1961). Van Strien (1986) also considered it probable that Bubalus bubalis was part of the original fauna of the island and gave north-west Borneo as its current distribution. Harrisson, however, thought that the wild form was extinct. Feral (and semi-feral) buffaloes were formerly numerous throughout Borneo but the current status of the island's feral population is poorly known. What does seem certain, however, is that even if the species is indigenous to the island (as seems to be the case) no true wild B. arnee occur there today since they would have been genetically swamped by the numerous feral animals some of which were descended from buffaloes introduced from outside Borneo (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).

IUCN

Map

Country

Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia	IUCN
China
Indonesia
Japan
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar	IUCN
Mongolia
Philippines
Singapore
Republic of Korea
Thailand	IUCN
Vietnam

Status

International Status

IUCN Red List Category

ENIUCN

Justification

Wild Water Buffalo is listed as Endangered A2cde+3cde+4cde; C1. The remaining world population totals under 4,000, with an estimate of fewer than 2,500 mature individuals. An estimated population reduction of at least 50% over the last three generations (generation length estimated at 8?10 years) seems likely given the severity of the threats, especially hybridization; it is projected to continue into the future.

IUCN

CITES

Appendix III (Nepal)IUCN

CMS

 

National Status

Country	Category	Reference
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia	EN	Endangered Spacies in Cambodia(WWF) http://cambodia.panda.org/wwf_in_cambodia/endangered_species
China
Indonesia
Japan
Korea
Lao PDR	CARL	Wildlife in Lao PDR, 1999 Status Report(IUCN, 1999) (At Risk in Lao, Conditionally At Risk, Little Known, not applicable, Potentially At Risk)
Malaysia
Mongolia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand	EN　（Bubalus bubalisとして記載、Bubalus bubalis arneeとの整合性整理必要）	Thailand Red Data: Mammals, Reptiles and Amphibians(Nabhitabhata and Chan-ard, 2005)
Vietnam	E(as Bubalus bubalis)	Red Data Book of Vietnam(2000) （Endangered, Vulnerable, Rare, Threatened）

Ecology Discription

Appearance

 

Habitat

Wild buffaloes are tied to the availability of water: historically their preferred habitats were low-lying alluvial grasslands and their surrounds, with riparian forests and woodlands also used (Lydekker 1926; Prater 1971; Choudhury 1994). In Indochina the species frequented the lowlands dominated by deciduous forests and with a marked dry season, where it apparently used small pools and marshes, in addition to permanently flowing rivers (Wharton 1957). Free-ranging domestic animals continue to live like this today; in such areas buffalo retreat to the vicinities of larger more permanent waterbodies during the height of the dry season, but move widely through the forests at other times of the year (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).

Before their major population decline, wild buffaloes were known to make long-distance movements with season, such that when an undoubted wild buffalo turned up in Panna district, India, some 225 km northwest of its nearest known present-day occurrence in Raipur district, this was not an unprecedented movement (Hasan 1980; Arun Singh 1980).

The upper elevational limit is difficult to determine, although animals certainly occur down at sea level; it possibly relates to a need for level land rather than preference for lower elevations, thus allowing for plateaux, and wild-living feral buffaloes live up to at least 1,000 m asl in East Java (S. Hedges pers. comm. 2008).

IUCN

Population size

The total world population of Wild Water Buffalo is almost certainly less than 4,000 animals and may well be less than 200, occupying an area of less than 20,000 km2. Indeed it is possible that no pure-bred Wild Water Buffaloes remain. However, these figures are little more than informed guesses, since any assessment of buffalo numbers is hampered by the difficulty of distinguishing between free-ranging domestic buffaloes, feral buffaloes, truly wild buffaloes, and hybrids between wild and other buffaloes. Individuals of Wild Water Buffalo and Domestic Water Buffalo are difficult to distinguish in some areas, and some domestic populations may be very closely related to (perhaps identical to) Wild Water Buffalo, as in Cambodia, where traditional forms of buffalo husbandry allow herds to range freely in forest areas (Timmins and Ou 2001; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). There have been few detailed analyses of the purity of the presumed remaining Wild Water Buffalo populations, nor in many cases is it obvious how such an assessment would be made. The Domestic Water Buffalo occurs as feral and domesticated populations worldwide, including in sympatry with most remaining populations of Wild Water Buffalo (Grubb 2005; S. Hedges pers comm. 2008). Some feral and domestic populations may well have conservation significance, retaining some of the genetic stock of the wild populations for that particular region, this may be especially true in Indochina due to traditional methods of Water Buffalo husbandry (S. Hedges pers comm. 1994, 2008; Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).

In India, Wild Water Buffalo is now largely restricted to Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. In Assam, the species is found in and around Manas Sanctuary, Laokhowa Sanctuary, Kaziranga National Park, and Dibru Sanctuary. In Arunachal Pradesh, the species occurs in and around Namdapha Sanctuary. There are two populations in Madhya Pradesh (Bastar district), one in Indravati National Park, and another in Udanti Sanctuary, which might extend into adjacent parts of Orissa. However, most, if not all, surviving populations are believed to have interbred with domesticated and/or feral Domestic Water Buffalo. In the late 1980s, Divekar suggested that there were fewer than 100 truly wild buffaloes left in India (in Madhya Pradesh); and by 1992 the numbers had dropped even further to an estimated 50 animals. However, Choudhury (1994) reported that in the early 1990s there may still have been about 3,300?3,500 wild buffaloes in Assam and the adjacent states of northeast India, plus a small number in Madhya Pradesh. A 1997 CAMP workshop assessed the number of mature individuals in India to be less than 1,500 (S. Hedges pers. comm. 1995). The population data suggest a decline of about 80% between 1966 and 1992 in central India. In northeast India, insufficient data exist to enable trends to be calculated but there is little doubt that the number of true wild buffalo has declined and is continuing to decline as a result of interbreeding with domestic and/or feral buffalo, hunting, and habitat loss (S. Hedges and J. W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2000).

An unknown number of Wild Water Buffaloes, believed to include truly wild individuals, occurs in and around Bhutan's Royal Manas National Park. This is the only subpopulation in Bhutan and is contiguous with that in Manas Tiger Reserve in India.

Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve contains the only population in Nepal, where there were 159 wild Asian Buffalo in 2004 but this sole Nepali population is currently seriously threatened (Heinen and Kandel 2006).

There are no population estimates for Myanmar, reflecting a paucity of recent surveys. The extent of suitable habitat means the species could be still extant, and a few wild-living animals independent of human husbandry live in the Hukaung Valley of Kachin state (Than Zaw pers. comm. 2006; Saw Htun pers. comm. 2006; A.W. Tordoff pers. comm. 2006 to J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008 ). Pending further information, these should be seen as likely to be genuinely wild stock or at least if feral, of archaic origin, and so, in either case, of conservation significance.

In Thailand, 40?50 wild buffaloes are reported to occur in the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary; this is the only population remaining in Thailand (Rattanawat Chairat in litt. to Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2006). This population may be interbreeding with Domestic Water Buffalo, although individuals can often be distinguished in the field (Anak Pattanavibool pers. comm. 2006). In Thailand, wild buffalo numbers have apparently been relatively stable since the mid-1980s (R. Steinmetz pers. comm. 2006).

The population in Cambodia, which is confined to a small area of easternmost Mondulkiri and possibly Ratanakiri Provinces is very small, with perhaps a few dozen individuals remaining (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff et al. 2005). There has not been any thorough analysis of the purity of these animals (i.e. whether they are truly wild, rather than some mix or perhaps just feral domestic animals), as is the case with most other putative populations of the species (Timmins and Ou 2001; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).

Before 1999, there was reportedly a population in Mom Ray, Viet Nam, but this population no longer exists (Dang Huy Huynh in litt.; Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006). Rumours still persist of presence in other areas, for example the Satay region (Tordoff et al. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). Wild buffaloes of the Cambodian population may wander into western Dak Lak province, but no recent records in Viet Nam have been confirmed to represent wild Water Buffalo (Le Xuan Canh et al. 1997; Eames et al. 2004; Tordoff et al. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).

The species was thought to formerly occur in Lao PDR, but the date of extinction is not known (Duckworth et al. 1999).

IUCN

Behavior

Wild Water Buffalo can be both diurnal and nocturnal. Typically, it forms maternal groups of loosely structured herds, typically containing 10?20, but up to 100, individuals, year round. Adult males form bachelor herds of up to 10 individuals, with older males often solitary. The species exhibits a polygynous mating system, with females typically giving birth to single offspring, although twins are possible. It is a seasonal breeder in most of its range, typically in October and November, however, some populations breed year round. Its gestation lasts 10-11 months, with an interbirth interval of one year. Age at sexual maturity is 18 months for males, and three years for females. The maximum known lifespan is 25 years in the wild (Nowak 1999).

IUCN

Diet

Little has been published on the diet of wild (or feral) Water Buffaloes. They are probably grazers by preference, feeding mainly on grasses when available, but they also eat herbs, fruits, and bark as well as browsing trees and shrubs. Daniel and Grubh (1966) listed Cynodon dactylon, Themeda quadrivalvis, and Coix sp., as grasses known to be eaten by wild buffaloes in India. They also saw them feeding on the sedge Cyperus corymbosus. Dahmer (1978), Shrestha (1981), and Hiralal Prasad Kushwaha (1986) provided a little information about the diet in Nepal. Wild Buffalo also feeds on crops, including rice, sugar cane, and jute, sometimes causing considerable damage (Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Hiralal Prasad Kushwaha 1986; Bauer 1987b).

IUCN

Reproduction

The species exhibits a polygynous mating system, with females typically giving birth to single offspring, although twins are possible. It is a seasonal breeder in most of its range, typically in October and November, however, some populations breed year round. Its gestation lasts 10-11 months, with an interbirth interval of one year. Age at sexual maturity is 18 months for males, and three years for females.

IUCN

Threat

Major Threat(s)

The most important threats to Wild Water Buffalo are interbreeding with feral and domestic buffalo, hunting, and habitat loss/degradation. Diseases and parasites (transmitted by domestic livestock) and interspecific competition for food and water between wild buffalo and domestic stock are also serious threats. The scale of the threat posed to Wild Water Buffalo by the trade in wildlife products is difficult to quantify, not least because it is unclear how many of the trophies from reportedly wild buffalo are in fact from wild buffalo rather than from feral or hybrid animals (Divekar and Bharat Bhusan 1988; Heinen 1993; Choudhury 1994; S. Hedges pers. comm. 2000).

Most of the species' former lowland habitat has been lost to agriculture, and what remains is highly fragmented. However, especially in countries such as Cambodia and Lao PDR, vast tracts of suitable lowland forest remain from which the species has long since been hunted out, and certainly there are several viable tracts of habitat in which the species could be re-introduced (Tordoff et al. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).

The Cambodian population is under severe threat from hunting for trophy horns both by Cambodians and Viet Namese hunters crossing the border (Timmins and Ou 2001; Tordoff et al. 2005; R.J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008; Do Tuoc pers. comm. 2006). This threat is currently somewhat alleviated through to an active protected area management project, but hunting is still rife in much of the surrounding area, as is forest fragmentation due to human population in migration, infrastructural developments (especially roads), commercial agricultural expansion, economic land speculation and mineral extraction (Tordoff et al. 2005; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008). However, the most significant threat to the area is the long-term uncertainty of continuation of effective conservation management of the Srepok Wilderness Area. This area faces an uncertain future. with part already degazetted from conservation status and the possibility that more would be excised in the future, the lack of long-term security of external funding adequate to maintain high standards of management, the uncertainty of long-term political support to uphold high protection standards and the uncertainties of maintaining a motivated and well-trained staff (R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).

In Myanmar, the population of wild-ranging buffaloes either truly wild or at least living outside human custody for a long time in and around the proposed Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve faces a very uncertain future. The seasonally-flooded plains, a matrix of grass and scrub, lies largely outside the already-established Hukaung Valley Wildlife Sanctuary and the areas of highest conservation significance lie south of the boundary even for a vast proposed extension to form the Hukaung Valley Tiger Reserve. All level areas in this region are under very high threat for conversion to agriculture, both rice and industrial-scale plantations of cash-crops. There is also an active hunting system for wild meat to feed hundreds of thousands of itinerant labourers in this area (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2008).

The invasive Mikania sp. also potentially threatens wetlands in the South Asian range of wild Water Buffaloes (Hem Sagar Baral pers. comm. 2008).

Hydropower development and resulting changes in water flow and level conditions downstream also threaten the ecological maintenance of floodplain areas (Odden et al. 2005).

Disease epidemics spreading from domestic livestock presumably pose a threat, especially given the close overlap of Wild Water Buffalo populations and domestic livestock in South Asia, the high densities especially of the latter, and the small and localised nature of Wild Water Buffalo populations.

IUCN

Conservation and Measurement

International

Wild Water Buffalo is included in CITES under Appendix III (Nepal).IUCN

National

Wild Water Buffalo is included in CITES under Appendix III (Nepal). It is legally protected in Bhutan, India, Nepal, and Thailand. The Cambodia population was a major factor in the decision to place further protection on the area, now designated as Mondulkiri Protection Forest, and a significant factor in the decision to establish the Srepok Wilderness Area Project of the Cambodian Department of Forestry and WWF (Goodman et al. 2003; R. J. Timmins pers. comm. 2008).

Most of the known populations are within protected areas. In Myanmar, which retains true lowland floodplains in near-natural state in the Hukaung Valley, the protected area system originally almost entirely excluded floodplain grasslands. The inclusion of some areas is now under consideration, and would benefit this species. However, the outcome is far from certain (J.W. Duckworth pers. comm. 2006).

Most remaining populations still require protection from hunting (especially those in Thailand and Cambodia, and Myanmar if still extant), but probably the greater threat in South Asia is protection from contact with other domestic bovines, especially Domestic Water Buffalo.

There is an urgent need to evaluate the integrity of wild-living buffalo populations, including those generally taken as being truly wild and those living as wild animals within the native range, using habitat typical of wild animals, and which have lived outside even occasional husbandry for a long time, in order to determine populations of conservation priority. This should involve the assessment of the relationship of such populations in the context of obvious domestic lineages, especially those in close proximity to wild populations. Such an approach should use multiple genetic markers in addition to an assessment of morphological characteristics.

Surveys to investigate current status of wild-living populations are needed in Myanmar and perhaps the Satay district of Viet Nam.

IUCN

Conservation law

Country	Status	Reference
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
China
Indonesia
Japan
Korea
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Mongolia
Myanmar	Protected Wild Animals(as Bubalus bubalis)	Protection of Wildlife, Wild Plants and Conservation of Natural Areas Act 15(A), Forest Department Notification No. 583/94
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand	Reserved Wild Animals	Wildlife Reservation and Protection Act B. E. 2535(1992)
Vietnam	Group I: Prohibiting Exploitation and Use for Commercial Purposes	The Government Decree 32/2006/ND-CP, Dated 30th March 2006 on Management of Endangered, Precious and Rare Species of Wild Plants and Animals

Protected Area

 

Other Coservation Projects

 

Citation

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Deraniyagala, P. E. P. 1953. The wild buffalo of Ceylon, a new subspecies. Spoila Zeylanica 27: 103-105.

Divekar, H. K. and Bhusan, B. 1988. Status of wild Asiatic buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in the Raipur and Bastar Districts of Madhya Pradesh. Technical Report of the Bombay Natural History Society of the Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund, SANCF Report No. 3/1988.

Duckworth, J. W., Salter, R. E. and Khounbline, K. 1999. Wildlife in Lao PDR: 1999 Status Report. IUCN, Vientiane, Laos.

Eames, J., Nguyen Duc Tu, Le Trong Trai, Dang Ngoc Can, Ngo Van Tri, Hoang Duc Dat, Thai Ngoc Tri and Nguyen Thi Thu He. 2004. Draft Final Biodiversity Report for Yok Don National Park, Dak Lak Province. PARC Project VIE/95/G31&031, Government of Viet Nam (FPD)/UNOPS/UNDP/Scott Wilson Asia-Pacific Ltd., Ha Noi, Vietnam.

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Epstein, H. 1971. Domestic Animals of China. Africana Publishing Corporation, New York, USA.

Gee, E. P. 1964. The Wild Life of India. Collins, London, UK.

Gentry, A., Clutton-Brock, J. and Groves, C. P. 2004. The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives. Journal of Archaeological Science 31: 645-651.

Goodman, P. S., Conway, A. J. and Timmins, R. J. 2003. Selection and planning of an intensively managed wildlife protection zone in the dry forest ecoregion of north-eastern Cambodia. WWF Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Groves, C. P. 1996. The taxonomy of the Asian wild buffalo from the Asian mainland. Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 61: 327?338.

Grubb, P. 2005. Artiodactyla. In: D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder (eds), Mammal Species of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed), pp. 637-722. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, USA.

Gurung, K. K. and Singh, R. 1996. Field Guide to the Mammals of the Indian Subcontinent. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.

Harrisson, T. 1961. Prehistoric fauna changes and losses in Borneo. Malayan Nature Journal 21st Anniversary Special Issue (Nature Conservation in Western Malaysia 1961): 89-92.

Hasan, S. M. 1980. The enigmatic buffalo. Hornbill 1980: 26-27.

Hedges, S. 1996. Proposal for transfer of wild Asian buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) from CITES Appendix III to Appendix I. Proposal prepared for the IUCN/SSC Asian Wild Cattle Specialist Group, the IUCN/SSC Wildlife Trade Programme, and the Thai Government..

Hedges, S. In press. Asian Wild Cattle and Buffaloes: Status Report and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Asian Wild Cattle Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland.

Heinen, J. T. 1993. Population viability and management recommendations for wild water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Kosi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Biological Conservation 65: 29-34.

Heinen, J. T. and Ramchandra, K. 2006. Threats to a small population: a census and conservation recommendations for wild buffalo Bubalus arnee in Nepal. Oryx 40: 1?8.

Heng Kimchhay, Ouk Kimsan, Kry Masphal, Sin Polin, Uch Seiha and Weiler, H. 1998. The distribution of tiger, leopard, elephant and wild cattle (gaur, banteng, buffalo, Khting Vor and kouprey) in Cambodia. In: Interm Report: July 1998 (ed.), Wildlife Protection Office. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 60: 81-84.

Kushwaha, H. P. 1986. Comparison of census data for wild buffalo and domestic livestocks (buffalo and cow) in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve. Unpublished project report, Institute of Forestry, Thribhuan University, Nepal.

Laurie, A., Ha Dinh Duc and Pham Trung Anh. 1989. Survey for kouprey (Bos sauveli) in Western Daklak Province, Vietnam. Unpublished report IUCN and The Kouprey Conservation Trust.

Lekagul, B. and Mcneely, J. A. 1988. Mammals of Thailand. White Lotus Press, Bangkok, Thailand.

Le Xuan Canh, Pham Trong Anh, Duckworth, J. W., Vu Ngoc Thanh and Lic Vuthy. 1997. A survey of large mammals in Dak Lak Province, Viet Nam. Unpublished report to IUCN and WWF. Hanoi, Viet Nam.

Lydekker, R. 1898. Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats of all Lands. Rowland Ward, London, UK.

Lydekker, R. 1924. The game animals of India, Burma, Malaya and Tibet. Rowland Ward, London, UK.

Maia, L. C. M. 1970. The present position of the wild water buffalo in Asia. Loris 12: 86-88.

Mason, I. L. 1974. Species, types and breeds. In: W. R. Cockrill (ed.), The Husbandry and Health of the Domestic Buffalo, pp. 1-47. FAO, Rome, Italy.

Medway, L. 1972. The Quaternary mammals of Malesia. In: P. Ashton and M. Ashton (eds), The Quaternary Era in Malesia, pp. 63-98. University of Hull, Hull, UK.

Merkens, J. 1927. Bijdrage tot de kennis van den karbouw en de karbouwenteelt in Nederlandsch Oost-Indi. Thesis, Utrecht University.

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